Which Of The Following Findings Was Not A Result Of The Kinsey Study?

9.3 Sexual Behavior

Learning Objectives

Past the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Understand basic biological mechanisms regulating sexual behavior and motivation
• Appreciate the importance of Alfred Kinsey's research on homo sexuality
• Recognize the contributions that William Masters and Virginia Johnson'southward research made to our agreement of the sexual response cycle
• Define sexual orientation and gender identity

   Similar food, sex is an important part of our lives. From an evolutionary perspective, the reason is obvious—perpetuation of the species. Sexual beliefs in humans, however, involves much more reproduction. This department provides an overview of research that has been conducted on human sexual beliefs and motivation. This section volition close with a discussion of problems related to gender and sexual orientation.

PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR AND MOTIVATION

   Much of what we know nigh the physiological mechanisms that underlie sexual behavior and motivation comes from animal research. As you lot've learned, the hypothalamus plays an of import role in motivated behaviors, and sex is no exception. In fact, lesions to an area of the hypothalamus called the medial preoptic surface area completely disrupt a male person rat'southward ability to engage in sexual beliefs. Surprisingly, medial preoptic lesions do non change how difficult a male rat is willing to work to proceeds access to a sexually receptive female (figure below). This suggests that the ability to engage in sexual behavior and the motivation to do so may be mediated by neural systems distinct from ane some other.

A male rat that cannot engage in sexual beliefs still seeks receptive females, suggesting that the ability to engage in sexual behavior and the motivation to practice so are mediated past unlike systems in the brain. (credit: Jason Snyder)

   Fauna enquiry suggests that limbic system structures such as the amygdala and nucleus accumbens are especially of import for sexual motivation. Damage to these areas results in a decreased motivation to engage in sexual behavior, while leaving the power to do so intact (figure below) (Everett, 1990). Similar dissociations of sexual motivation and sexual ability accept also been observed in the female rat (Becker, Rudick, & Jenkins, 2001; Jenkins & Becker, 2001).

The medial preoptic expanse, an area of the hypothalamus, is involved in the power to appoint in sexual behavior, only it does not affect sexual motivation. In dissimilarity, the amygdala and nucleus accumbens are involved in motivation for sexual behavior, only they do non bear upon the ability to engage in information technology.

   Although human sexual beliefs is much more complex than that seen in rats, some parallels betwixt animals and humans tin be fatigued from this research. The worldwide popularity of drugs used to care for erectile dysfunction (Conrad, 2005) speaks to the fact that sexual motivation and the power to engage in sexual behavior tin besides be dissociated in humans. Moreover, disorders that involve abnormal hypothalamic role are oftentimes associated with hypogonadism (reduced role of the gonads) and reduced sexual function (east.yard., Prader-Willi syndrome). Given the hypothalamus'south role in endocrine role, information technology is not surprising that hormones secreted past the endocrine organisation as well play important roles in sexual motivation and behavior. For example, many animals show no sign of sexual motivation in the absenteeism of the advisable combination of sex activity hormones from their gonads. While this is non the example for humans, at that place is considerable evidence that sexual motivation for both men and women varies equally a part of circulating testosterone levels (Bhasin, Enzlin, Coviello, & Basson, 2007; Carter, 1992; Sherwin, 1988).

KINSEY'S RESEARCH

   Earlier the late 1940s, access to reliable, empirically-based data on sex was limited. Physicians were considered authorities on all issues related to sexual activity, despite the fact that they had piffling to no grooming in these bug, and it is likely that most of what people knew about sex had been learned either through their own experiences or past talking with their peers. Convinced that people would benefit from a more open dialogue on issues related to human sexuality, Dr. AlfredKinsey of Indiana University initiated large-calibration survey research on the topic (figure below). The results of some of these efforts were published in two books—Sexual Beliefs in the Human MaleandSexual Beliefs in the Man Female—which were published in 1948 and 1953, respectively (Bullough, 1998).

In 1947, Alfred Kinsey established The Kinsey Institute for Enquiry, Sex, Gender and Reproduction at Indiana University, shown here in 2011. The Kinsey Institute has connected equally a research site of important psychological studies for decades.

   At the fourth dimension, the Kinsey reports were quite sensational. Never before had the American public seen its individual sexual behavior get the focus of scientific scrutiny on such a big calibration. The books, which were filled with statistics and scientific lingo, sold remarkably well to the general public, and people began to engage in open conversations about human sexuality. As you might imagine, not everyone was happy that this data was being published. In fact, these books were banned in some countries. Ultimately, the controversy resulted in Kinsey losing funding that he had secured from the Rockefeller Foundation to proceed his inquiry efforts (Bancroft, 2004).

Although Kinsey'southward research has been widely criticized as being riddled with sampling and statistical errors (Jenkins, 2010), there is little doubt that this enquiry was very influential in shaping time to come research on human being sexual behavior and motivation. Kinsey described a remarkably diverse range of sexual behaviors and experiences reported by the volunteers participating in his research. Behaviors that had once been considered exceedingly rare or problematic were demonstrated to be much more common and innocuous than previously imagined (Bancroft, 2004; Bullough, 1998).

Among the results of Kinsey'south research were the findings that women are as interested and experienced in sex activity every bit men, that both men and women masturbate without adverse health consequences, and that gay acts are fairly common (Bancroft, 2004). Kinsey too adult a continuum known as the Kinsey scale that is all the same commonly used today to categorize an individual's sexual orientation (Jenkins, 2010). Sexual orientation is an individual'due south sexual attraction, whether that be to people of "opposite" gender (heterosexual), of the same gender (gay/lesbian), of both or all genders (bisexual/pansexual), no i (asexual), or some other pick.

MASTERS AND JOHNSON'S RESEARCH

   In 1966, WilliamMasters and VirginiaJohnson published a book detailing the results of their observations of nearly 700 people who agreed to participate in their report of physiological responses during sexual behavior. Unlike Kinsey, who used personal interviews and surveys to collect data, Masters and Johnson observed people having intercourse in a variety of positions, and they observed people masturbating, manually or with the aid of a device. While this was occurring, researchers recorded measurements of physiological variables, such as blood force per unit area and respiration rate, as well as measurements of sexual arousal, such as vaginal lubrication and penile tumescence (swelling associated with an erection). In total, Masters and Johnson observed near ten,000 sexual acts as a part of their research (Hock, 2008).

Based on these observations, Masters and Johnson divided the sexual response cycle into four phases that are adequately like in men and women: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution (figure below). The excitement phase is the arousal phase of the sexual response cycle, and it is marked past erection of the penis or clitoris and lubrication and expansion of the vaginal canal. During plateau, women feel farther swelling of the vagina and increased blood flow to the labia minora, and men experience full erection and often exhibit pre-ejaculatory fluid. Both men and women experience increases in musculus tone during this fourth dimension. Orgasmis marked in women by rhythmic contractions of the pelvis and uterus forth with increased muscle tension. In men, pelvic contractions are accompanied past a buildup of seminal fluid nigh the urethra that is ultimately forced out by contractions of genital muscles, (i.e., ejaculation). Resolution is the relatively rapid return to an unaroused country accompanied by a decrease in blood pressure and muscular relaxation. While many women can quickly repeat the sexual response cycle, men must pass through a longer refractory menstruum as part of resolution. The refractory period is a period of time that follows an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing some other orgasm. In men, the duration of the refractory period can vary dramatically from private to private with some refractory periods as brusque as several minutes and others as long every bit a day. As men age, their refractory periods tend to span longer periods of time.

This graph illustrates the unlike phases of the sexual response cycle as described by Masters and Johnson.

   In add-on to the insights that their research provided with regards to the sexual response bike and the multi-orgasmic potential of women, Masters and Johnson also collected important data nigh reproductive anatomy. Their research demonstrated the ofttimes-cited statistic of the average size of a flaccid and an erect penis (3 and 6 inches, respectively) also as dispelling long-held behavior virtually relationships between the size of a human's cock penis and his ability to provide sexual pleasance to his female partner. Furthermore, they determined that the vagina is a very elastic structure that tin accommodate to penises of various sizes (Hock, 2008).

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

As mentioned before, a person's sexual orientation is their sexual attraction toward another individual (figure below). While the majority of people identify as heterosexual, at that place is a sizable population of people inside the Us who identify some other way. Inquiry suggests that somewhere betwixt 3% and 10% of the population identifies equally gay or lesbian (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948; LeVay, 1996; Pillard & Bailey, 1995).

Betwixt 3% and 10% of the adult population identifies as homosexual. (credit: Pexels user Felipe Balduino)

   Issues of sexual orientation have long fascinated scientists interested in determining what causes i individual to be heterosexual while another is gay. For many years, people believed that these differences arose because of dissimilar socialization and familial experiences. Nevertheless, inquiry has consistently demonstrated that the family backgrounds and experiences are very similar amid people who have unlike sexual orientations (Bell, Weinberg, & Hammersmith, 1981; Ross & Arrindell, 1988).

Genetic and biological mechanisms have too been proposed, and the rest of enquiry testify suggests that sexual orientation has an underlying biological component. For instance, over the past 25 years, research has demonstrated factor-level contributions to sexual orientation (Bailey & Pillard, 1991; Hamer, Hu, Magnuson, Hu, & Pattatucci, 1993; Rodriguez-Larralde & Paradisi, 2009), with some researchers estimating that genes account for at to the lowest degree half of the variability seen in human sexual orientation (Pillard & Bailey, 1998). Other studies report differences in brain structure and role between straight and gay people (Allen & Gorski, 1992; Byne et al., 2001; Hu et al., 2008; LeVay, 1991; Ponseti et al., 2006; Rahman & Wilson, 2003a; Swaab & Hofman, 1990), and fifty-fifty differences in basic body construction and function have been observed (Hall & Kimura, 1994; Lippa, 2003; Loehlin & McFadden, 2003; McFadden & Champlin, 2000; McFadden & Pasanen, 1998; Rahman & Wilson, 2003b). In aggregate, the data suggest that to a pregnant extent, sexual orientations are something with which nosotros are built-in.

Misunderstandings near Sexual Orientation

   Regardless of how sexual orientation is determined, enquiry has made clear that sexual orientation is non a selection, only rather information technology is a relatively stable characteristic of a person that cannot be changed. Claims of successful gay conversion therapy have received wide criticism from the research customs due to significant concerns with research design, recruitment of experimental participants, and interpretation of data. As such, in that location is no credible scientific bear witness to advise that individuals can change their sexual orientation (Jenkins, 2010). The American Psychological Association created a task force in 2007 to examine conversion therapy and this was their study: https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2009/08/therapeutic

Dr. Robert Spitzer, the author of one of the most widely-cited examples of successful conversion therapy, apologized to both the scientific community and the gay customs for his mistakes, and he publically recanted his own newspaper in a public letter addressed to the editor ofAthenaeum of Sexual Behaviorin the spring of 2012 (Carey, 2012). In this letter, Spitzer wrote,

I was considering writing something that would acknowledge that I at present judge the major critiques of the study as largely correct. . . . I believe I owe the gay customs an apology for my study making unproven claims of the efficacy of reparative therapy. I besides apologize to any gay person who wasted time or energy undergoing some course of reparative therapy because they believed that I had proven that reparative therapy works with some "highly motivated" individuals. (Becker, 2012, pars. 2, 5)

   Citing inquiry that suggests not only that gay conversion therapy is ineffective, merely also potentially harmful, legislative efforts to make such therapy illegal take either been enacted (e.g., information technology is now illegal in California) or are underway across the Usa, and many professional organizations take issued statements against this practice (Homo Rights Campaign, n.d.)

Read this draft of Dr. Spitzer'southward letter.

GENDER IDENTITY

   Many people conflate sexual orientation with gender identity because of stereotypical attitudes that exist about homosexuality. In reality, these are two related, but different, issues. Gender identity refers to one'south sense of being a human being, adult female, some combination thereof, or another choice. Generally, our gender identities correspond to our chromosomal and phenotypic sex activity, but this is not always the case. When individuals practise not feel comfortable identifying with the gender associated with their biological sex, then they feel gender dysphoria. Gender dysphoria is a diagnostic category in the fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) that describes individuals who do not identify every bit the gender that nearly people would assume they are. This dysphoria must persist for at least half-dozen months and outcome in significant distress or dysfunction to meet DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. In order for children to be assigned this diagnostic category, they must verbalize their want to become another gender.

Many people who are classified as gender dysphoric seek to live their lives in means that are consistent with their ain gender identity. This involves dressing in the wearable that matches their identity and living a life that aligns with their gender identity. These individuals may likewise undertake transgender hormone therapy to aid their body match their gender identity, and in some cases, they elect to take surgeries to alter the appearance of their external genitalia to lucifer that of their gender identity (Figure).

Laverne Cox, who rose to fame while starring on Orange is the New Black, is a prominent transgender woman and abet for the LGBTQIA* customs. (credit: Wikimedia Eatables)

CULTURAL FACTORS IN SEXUAL ORIENTATION AND GENDER IDENTITY

   Issues related to sexual orientation and gender identity are very much influenced by sociocultural factors. Even the ways in which nosotros define sexual orientation and gender vary from ane civilization to the adjacent. While in the United States exclusive heterosexuality is viewed as the norm, there are societies that have different attitudes regarding homosexual behavior. In fact, in some instances, periods of exclusively homosexual beliefs are socially prescribed as a function of normal evolution and maturation. For case, in parts of New Guinea, young boys are expected to engage in sexual beliefs with other boys for a given period of time because information technology is believed that doing so is necessary for these boys to go men (Baldwin & Baldwin, 1989).

There is a two-gendered culture in the U.s.. We tend to classify an private equally either man or adult female. However, in some cultures there are additional gender variants resulting in more than 2 default gender categories. For instance, in Thailand, you can exist male person, female person, or kathoey. A kathoey is an individual who would be described equally intersex or transgender in the U.s.a. (Tangmunkongvorakul, Banwell, Carmichael, Utomo, & Sleigh, 2010).

THE CASE OF DAVID REIMER

In August of 1965, Janet and Ronald Reimer of Winnipeg, Canada, welcomed the birth of their twin sons, Bruce and Brian. Within a few months, the twins were experiencing urinary issues; doctors recommended the issues could be alleviated by having the boys circumcised. A malfunction of the medical equipment used to perform the circumcision resulted in Bruce's penis being irreparably damaged. Distraught, Janet and Ronald looked to skilful communication on what to do with their babe boy. By happenstance, the couple became aware of Dr. John Money at Johns Hopkins University and his theory of psychosexual neutrality (Colapinto, 2000).

Dr. Money had spent a considerable amount of time researching transgender individuals and individuals born with ambiguous genitalia. As a result of this piece of work, he developed a theory of psychosexual neutrality. His theory asserted that we are essentially neutral at birth with regard to our gender identity and that we don't assume a physical gender identity until we begin to master language. Furthermore, Dr. Money believed that the way in which we are socialized in early life is ultimately much more important than our biology in determining our gender identity (Money, 1962).

Dr. Coin encouraged Janet and Ronald to bring the twins to Johns Hopkins University, and he convinced them that they should raise Bruce as a daughter. Left with few other options at the time, Janet and Ronald agreed to have Bruce's testicles removed and to raise him as a girl. When they returned home to Canada, they brought with them Brian and his "sis," Brenda, along with specific instructions to never reveal to Brenda that she had been born a boy (Colapinto, 2000).

Early on, Dr. Money shared with the scientific community the peachy success of this natural experiment that seemed to fully support his theory of psychosexual neutrality (Money, 1975). Indeed, in early interviews with the children it appeared that Brenda was a typical piffling girl who liked to play with "girly" toys and do "girly" things.

However, Dr. Coin was less than forthcoming with data that seemed to argue against the success of the case. In reality, Brenda's parents were constantly concerned that their piffling girl wasn't really behaving every bit most girls did, and by the time Brenda was nearing adolescence, it was painfully obvious to the family that she was really having a hard time identifying equally a daughter. In addition, Brenda was condign increasingly reluctant to proceed her visits with Dr. Money to the betoken that she threatened suicide if her parents made her go back to see him again.

At that indicate, Janet and Ronald disclosed the truthful nature of Brenda's early on childhood to their daughter. While initially shocked, Brenda reported that things made sense to her at present, and ultimately, by the fourth dimension she was an adolescent, Brenda had decided to place as a male child. Thus, she became David Reimer.

David was quite comfortable in his masculine office. He made new friends and began to think about his future. Although his castration had left him infertile, he withal wanted to be a begetter. In 1990, David married a single female parent and loved his new role as a hubby and father. In 1997, David was made aware that Dr. Money was continuing to publicize his case as a success supporting his theory of psychosexual neutrality. This prompted David and his blood brother to go public with their experiences in attempt to discredit the doctor'southward publications. While this revelation created a firestorm in the scientific community for Dr. Money, it also triggered a series of unfortunate events that ultimately led to David committing suicide in 2004 (O'Connell, 2004).

This sad story speaks to the complexities involved in gender identity. While the Reimer case had earlier been paraded as a hallmark of how socialization trumped biological science in terms of gender identity, the truth of the story made the scientific and medical communities more cautious in dealing with cases that involve intersex children and how to deal with their unique circumstances. In fact, stories similar this i have prompted measures to prevent unnecessary harm and suffering to children who might have issues with gender identity. For example, in 2013, a law took effect in Frg allowing parents of intersex children to allocate their children as indeterminate so that children can self-assign the advisable gender once they have fully developed their ain gender identities (Paramaguru, 2013).

SUMMARY

   The hypothalamus and structures of the limbic system are important in sexual beliefs and motivation. In that location is evidence to suggest that our motivation to engage in sexual beliefs and our power to practice so are related, but dissever, processes. Alfred Kinsey conducted big-calibration survey research that demonstrated the incredible diversity of man sexuality. William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed individuals engaging in sexual behavior in developing their concept of the sexual response wheel. While often dislocated, sexual orientation and gender identity are related, just distinct, concepts.

References:

Openstax Psychology text by Kathryn Dumper, William Jenkins, Arlene Lacombe, Marilyn Lovett and Marion Perlmutter licensed nether CC Past v4.0. https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology

Exercises

Review Questions:

one. Animal enquiry suggests that in male rats the ________ is critical for the ability to engage in sexual behavior, but not for the motivation to exercise and so.

a. nucleus accumbens

b. amygdala

c. medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus

d. hippocampus

2. During the ________ phase of the sexual response wheel, individuals feel rhythmic contractions of the pelvis that are accompanied by uterine contractions in women and ejaculation in men.

a. excitement

b. plateau

c. orgasm

d. resolution

3. Which of the following findings was not a event of the Kinsey study?

a. Sexual desire and sexual power can be separate functions.

b. Females enjoy sex as much as males.

c. Homosexual beliefs is fairly common.

d. Masturbation has no adverse consequences.

four. If someone is uncomfortable identifying with the gender commonly associated with their biological sex, they could be classified as experiencing ________.

a. homosexuality

b. bisexuality

c. heterosexuality

d. gender dysphoria

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. While much enquiry has been conducted on how an individual develops a given sexual orientation, many people question the validity of this research citing that the participants used may not be representative. Why do y'all retrieve this might be a legitimate business organisation?

2. There is no reliable scientific evidence that gay conversion therapy actually works. How can psychological science inform that legal community in this area?

Personal Application Question:

1. Issues related to gender identity and civil rights have been at the forefront of the current political mural. Have you noticed ways in which WSU is working to be inclusive of gender not-conforming folks?

Glossary:

bisexual

excitement

gender dysphoria

gender identity

heterosexual

homosexual

orgasm

plateau

refractory period

resolution

sexual orientation

sexual response bike

transgender hormone therapy

Answers to Exercises

Review Questions:

1. C

2. C

iii. A

4. D

Disquisitional Thinking Questions:

1. Given the stigma associated with existence non-heterosexual, participants who openly identify every bit homosexual or bisexual in research projects may not be entirely representative of the non-heterosexual population every bit a whole.

2. Answers will vary.

Glossary:

bisexual: emotional and erotic attractions to both same-sexed individuals and opposite-sexed individuals

excitement:phase of the sexual response cycle that involves sexual arousal

gender dysphoria: diagnostic category in DSM-5 for individuals who do not identify as the gender associated with their biological sex

gender identity:individual's sense of being male or female

heterosexual: emotional and erotic attractions to contrary-sexed individuals

homosexual: emotional and erotic attractions to same-sexed individuals

orgasm:peak stage of the sexual response wheel associated with rhythmic muscle contractions (and ejaculation)

plateau:phase of the sexual response wheel that falls between excitement and orgasm

refractory period:time immediately following an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing some other orgasm

resolution:stage of the sexual response wheel post-obit orgasm during which the body returns to its unaroused land

sexual orientation: emotional and erotic attraction to aforementioned-sexed individuals, opposite-sexed individuals, or both

sexual response cycle:divided into 4 phases including excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

transgender hormone therapy: employ of hormones to make one's body look more than like the reverse-sex

Source: https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/9-4-sexual-behavior/

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